The Forum

For over two and a half thousand years the Ancient Greek Spartans have been known for their military might, discipline and self-sacrifice. Recent popular culture has portrayed them as the ultimate fearless warriors, especially ‘the 300’ Spartans who fought to the death at Thermopylae. But where does this image come from, and what do we really know about Spartan society and the peculiar utopia it tried to create? The city-state of Sparta has been admired for its stability, frugality, and the unusual social and sexual freedom of its women. But Sparta was also famous for its brutality towards its huge slave population, its authoritarian rule, and its policy of racial purity and eugenics that would eventually prove its undoing.Bridget Kendall talks to Christy Constantakopoulou, Professor of Classics and Ancient History at Birkbeck, University of London; Paul Rahe, Professor of History at Hillsdale College in the US; and Angie Hobbs, Professor of the Public Understanding of Philosophy at the University of Sheffiel

Antonie van Leeuwenhoek opened up a whole new world to us; he was the first to observe bacteria and other microscopic lifeforms which could not be seen by the naked eye. He is now regarded as the father of microbiology and yet he had neither scientific training nor university education, and spent his life first as a linen merchant and then a civil servant in a small Dutch city. To understand quite how game-changing Leeuwenhoek’s discoveries were, you have to imagine a world where just about everyone on the planet could only see things that were within the range of unaided human eyesight. Magnifying glasses were the preserve of a privileged few, and other optical instruments, such as simple telescopes and microscopes, were rarer still. So it’s little wonder that Leeuwenhoek was met with disbelief when he claimed that he had seen bustling, vibrant lifeforms in what for everyone was just a drop of clear, pure water.To find out how this extraordinarily curious Dutchman arrived at his discoveries, Rajan Datar is j

A man wakes up in the body of a verminous insect – this is the plot of one of the most celebrated short stories of all time – Franz Kafka’s 1915 novella The Metamorphosis. Dealing with the isolation and absurdity of modern existence, it has fascinated readers all over the world in its openness to varying interpretations, and the way it questions the very norms of society as well as literary form.Joining Rajan Datar to explore this most enigmatic work is Dr Carolin Duttlinger, the author of four books on Kafka and co-director of the Oxford Kafka research centre, Professor Alice Staskova, native of Kafka’s home city of Prague and specialist on Kafka and music, Dr Peter Zusi from the department of Czech Literature at University College London, and with the contribution of the Nigerian novelist Adrian Igoni Barrett who wrote his own take on The Metamorphosis – about a black man in Lagos who wakes up white.(Photo: Kafka's The Metamorphosis choreographed and directed by Arthur Pita at the Linbury Studio Theatre, Ro

The story of Hugh Masekela’s life is intertwined with the history of South Africa itself. Born into a relatively privileged family in a mining town east of Johannesburg, Masekela was aware from an early age of the separatist and exploitative legacy of colonialism. As he grew up and discovered his love of music, it soon became clear to him that fulfilling his ambitions as a black musician would have to be done far away from the brutal apartheid government which had come to power in 1948. In his adopted home in the United States, Masekela enjoyed a string of hit records and mixed with the great and the good of the jazz world. By now exiled from South Africa, he used his profile and his music to protest against repression and inequality, and wrote one of the defining songs of the campaign to free Nelson Mandela from prison.In his musical ventures he brought musicians together from across the African continent, in a spirit of Pan-Africanism which was so important to him. When he eventually returned to South Af

In this 200th year since his death, we look at the life and work of James Watt, the Scottish innovator whose ground-breaking ideas helped power the Industrial Revolution and lay the basis for much of the mechanised world we take for granted now. He wasn't the inventor of the first steam engine - that had existed before his time - but his improved steam engine was vastly more efficient than earlier versions. As a result, industrial production rates soared and workplaces were transformed by new machines: changes that were to revolutionise society as well as industry. So who was James Watt? What inspired him and who helped him? Bridget Kendall talks to historians Dr. Malcolm Dick, Director of the Centre for West Midlands History at the University of Birmingham, and Professor Larry Stewart from the University of King's College in Halifax, Nova Scotia, who specialises in early modern science. She is also joined by curators Val Boa from The McLean Museum in Greenock, Scotland that houses an important James Watt col

The Bhagavad Gita didn't start life as an exclusively religious text but over the two thousand years since it was composed the verses have taken on many different layers of meaning. For millions of Hindus today, the Gita has a similar scriptural status to the Quran for Muslims or the Bible for Christians. In the 20th century, others have seen the Gita as a guide to management strategy, a tool for self-help and even a call to arms for Indian independence in the face of British colonial rule.The story begins on a battlefield with the warrior Prince Arjuna suffering a breakdown. As warring families line up on opposing sides, Arjuna appeals to his charioteer Krishna for help in overcoming this existential crisis. In the 700 verses which follow, Krishna presents his friend with three options: the paths of action, knowledge and devotion.Joining Bridget is Professor Chakravarthi Ram-Prasad from the University of Lancaster in the UK, Professor Angelika Malinar from the University of Zürich, Switzerland, and from

King Cnut the Great started life as a young Viking warrior, but quickly became one of the most successful kings in Anglo-Saxon history, reigning over a huge empire covering England, Denmark and Norway in the early 11th Century. For some, he was the perfect Christian king; for others, he was a ruthless warlord. Today in popular culture his name is associated with the tale of King Cnut and the waves - the legend of an arrogant king who believed he could stop the tide.Joining Bridget Kendall to disentangle the facts from legends about King Cnut are Else Roesdahl, professor emerita of Medieval Archaeology at the University of Århus, Denmark; Eleanor Parker, lecturer in Medieval English Literature at Brasenose College, Oxford University, UK; and historian Timothy Bolton, author of the biography Cnut the Great.(Image: An illustration where Cnut criticises his courtiers for believing that he could command the tide of the river. Credit: Bettmann/Getty Images)

The months between May and August 1919 were a crucial time for Afghanistan: it was the period of the Third Anglo-Afghan War followed by the declaration of Afghan independence from Britain. So how was modern Afghan national identity forged? Who were the leaders responsible? Why, in the 19th century, had the country become financially and politically dependent on Britain? And what, a century on, is the legacy Afghanistan's independence struggle?These are some of the issues that Bridget Kendall discusses with historians of Afghanistan, professors Shah Mahmoud Hanifi, Sana Haroon and Benjamin Hopkins. Photo: People hold Afghan flags as they celebrate Afghan Independence Day (Sayed Khodaberdi Sadat/Anadolu Agency/Getty Images)

Rasputin’s story is a familiar one – an illiterate Siberian peasant who managed to secure the confidence of the last Tsar and Tsarina of Russia, while indulging his legendary sexual appetite and love of hard drinking. Rasputin was so revered by his acolytes that they would collect his fingernail clippings, as if they were some kind of holy relic. When his extraordinary life was brought to an equally extraordinary end when he refused to die – murdered eventually in cold blood by a group of aristocrats – it unleashed the Russian revolution, and changed the geopolitical landscape in ways that still resonate today.That’s one version of events that’s held sway for more than one hundred years. And yet so much of the Rasputin legend has been pieced together by those looking to discredit him. Is it possible to peel away the layers of myth-making and get to the heart of who Rasputin really was and what he stood for?Joining Bridget Kendall on a truth-seeking mission is Russian imperial historian Helen Rappaport, au

For as long as humans have gazed up at the moon it has been an object of fascination. From the Aztecs to the Romans to the Romantics, the moon has inspired everything from artistic outpourings to religious devotion. So how has our understanding of our nearest cosmic companion changed over the millennia? And, 50 years on from the Apollo 11 Moon landing, how has our relationship with the moon been changed by our lunar explorations?Rajan Datar talks to Monica Grady, Professor of Planetary and Space Sciences at the Open University in the UK; Anthony Aveni, Professor Emeritus of Astronomy, Anthropology, and Native American Studies at Colgate University in the US; and Alexandra Loske, a German art historian and co-author of Moon: Art, Science, Culture.Photo: A couple have dinner on a hill as the Supermoon is seen in Turkey's Kayseri, 2019. (Sercan Kucuksahin/Anadolu Agency/Getty Images)

Pearls are the most chameleon-like of jewels: they can sell for millions or for just a few dollars, they have been used to symbolize both chastity and debauchery, they have been conspicuously worn by men and women. The production methods of both cultured and natural pearls have been fraught with controversy and their position as fashion and status symbols has waxed and waned over the centuries. Bridget Kendall discovers the social history of pearls with jewellery historian Beatriz Chadour-Sampson and Pittsburgh University professor Molly Warsh. Plus jewellery writer Victoria Finlay puts to the test one of the more colourful claims about what is in essence an iridescent blob of nacre: that if you drop a pearl in a glass of vinegar it will quickly dissolve.(Photo: Pearls in a shell. Credit: Greg Vaughn/VW Pics/UIG/Getty Images)

Rajan Datar and guests explore the life and legacy of the American thinker Henry David Thoreau and his famous work 'Walden', which describes the young writer's experiment in living simply at Walden Pond in Massachusetts, for two years, two months and two days in the 1840s. A landmark text in American literature, ‘Walden’ has been enjoyed by generations for its insights into work and leisure, nature, solitude, society, the good life and more. Rajan and guests discuss this book and another of Thoreau’s famous works – the essay known as ‘Civil Disobedience’, read by some of the most influential figures of the twentieth century, such as Gandhi and Martin Luther King. They also reflect on the legacy of Thoreau’s work around the world today, in an age in which his themes – from protesting injustice to living the simple life – continue to resonate with readers. With expert guests Laura Dassow Walls, Kristen Case, John Kaag and Yoshiaki Furui. Produced by Alice Bloch.Photo: Henry David Thoreau (Universal History Arch

In its 200-year lifetime the Portuguese song known as fado has been intertwined with the country's politics. At first it was an expression of the woes of Lisbon's underclass, which perhaps explains its predominantly melancholy character. In the early 20th century when a military coup brought the fascist regime of António Salazar to power, fado was accused of being degenerate music and government officials censored its lyrics. However, as the dictatorship's grip on the country tightened over a 50-year period, fado flourished, and the regime saw its potential as a tourism marketing tool. When democracy was restored in the 1970s, fado began a decline because of its perceived links to the former far-right regime. As those associations have faded with time, fado is now enjoying a renaissance. The music's found favour with a new generation of singers who are taking this nostalgic, yearning song to a global audience.Rajan Datar investigates the ups and downs of fado, its history, legends and mystique, with gue

The 17th Century Queen Njinga was among the most successful of Africa's rulers in resisting European colonialism: she defied no fewer than 13 different Portuguese governors of modern-day Angola and ruled the kingdoms of Ndongo and Matamba for over three decades. She was no ordinary person, the warrior Queen. She was a fearless fighter, a military strategist, often ruthless, a shrewd diplomat and an inspirational leader in a period of huge turmoil, shifting alliances and conflict. Her name still resonates throughout the region and she stands as a symbol of the continent's fight against oppression. Rajan Datar is joined by professor Linda Heywood, author of the first comprehensive biography of Njinga in English, professor Roquinaldo Ferreira whose many publications include studies of the frequent social and cultural exchanges between Brazil and central Africa; and one of the leading experts on west African economic history Dr Toby Green.(Photo: Statue of Queen Njinga in Luanda, Angola. Sculptor: Rui de Matos.

Leonardo da Vinci is best known for his paintings - creating masterpieces like the Mona Lisa and The Last Supper. But through his notes and drawings we know him also to have been a sculptor, mathematician, botanist, palaeontologist, anatomist, architect and engineer, recording insights and inventions that were astonishingly ahead of their time. So what do his observations and experiments tell us about his unique understanding of the visible world around him? To mark the 500th anniversary of Leonardo's death Bridget Kendall talks to Martin Kemp, Emeritus Professor in the History of Art at Oxford University in the UK; Carmen C. Bambach, a curator at The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, in the US; and Prof Marina Wallace, a curator and art historian.Photo: Leonardo Da Vinci (1452-1519), Self-portrait, Red Chalk Drawing (Christophel Fine Art/Getty Images)

It’s been called the 'gymnasium of the mind', both mental exercise and a way to build self-esteem. Born some 1,500 years ago, the game of chess was one of the world’s first strategy board games, though little is still known about its origins. Was it first conceived to teach Indian army generals? Or devised to turn a tyrannical King into a virtuous ruler? Or was it a meditative diversion for Japanese monks? It’s easy to forget that the modern game of chess is only 500 years old – and that other ancient forms of Chess, like Xiangqi in China and Shogi in Japan, are much older, still evolving and still played today. Joining Bridget Kendall to explore the history of chess, are the chess historians Jean-Louis Cazaux and Rick Knowlton, the novelist Andrei Kurkov who’s followed the dramas of Russian chess through the ages, and the Grandmaster Jovanka Houska who’ll be challenging Bridget to a game of chess in the studio.Photo: Rick Knowlton's sculpted reproductions of the first confirmed chessmen ever discovered. The

It is an all-time adventure classic, a novel by Jules Verne that started life in serialized form 150 years ago and has gripped readers ever since, making it one of the most translated works in publishing history (and yes, the original French title says 'seas' in plural). It also made a household name out of its main character, Captain Nemo, the troubled and enigmatic commander who transports us through underwater wonders - including the lost world of Atlantis - in Nautilus, a submarine that itself is a technological marvel. So popular is the story, stars as famous as James Mason, Omar Sharif and Michael Caine have featured in movie versions. But there are dark undercurrents in the novel, themes of anger and revenge, as well as a number of enigmatic passages. To explore the long-lasting appeal of Twenty Thousand Leagues under the Seas, Rajan Datar is joined by Marie-Helene Huet, professor of French at Princeton University and MIT; French writer and translator Laurence Sudret, general secretary of the Société

The story of how an average-sized artillery officer from a small Mediterranean island came to dominate revolutionary France and become the international celebrity of his age is an extraordinary one. Born on Corsica in 1769, Napoleon Bonaparte appeared to avoid engaging with the military career for which he was destined. And yet within a decade, his ambition, ego and enormous talent for self-promotion propelled him to the rank of general and eventually the highest office in France.At the beginning of the 19th century Napoleon’s rise appeared unstoppable. He was declared First Consul for life, then crowned himself Emperor of the French. He brought a period of much-needed stability to France and codified laws and systems which exist to this day. When his wife Joséphine was unable to give him a child, he divorced her and cemented an alliance with Austria’s imperial family. At its height, the Napoleonic empire stretched across most of Western Europe and numbered 40 million people. But his continuing thirst f

The trade in spices goes back to ancient times: from the Frankincense trails that originated in the Dhofar Highlands in present day Yemen to the Queen of Sheba who travelled to Jerusalem with camels laden with spices. For centuries, spices have captured our imagination far more than any other commodities, and spice traders, from the Arab merchants to the European trading companies of the Age of Discovery, capitalised on the mystique of these luxurious aromatics to create a value chain that led to vast fortunes being made and Empires established. And this worldwide craze for spices played a great part in the rise of globalised trade and the birth of the Stock exchange and the capitalist system.Joining Rajan Datar to discuss the Spice Trade is Professor Gary Paul Nabhan whose ancestors were Arab spice merchants and who’s the author of "Cumin, Camels, and Caravans: A Spice Odyssey", Dr Chris Nierstrasz, Lecturer in Global History at Erasmus University in Rotterdam and specialist on the United Dutch East India Co

Tove Jansson was a Finnish-Swedish author and illustrator best known for her children's books about the Moomins. These white, hippo-like characters live in the imaginary world of Moominvalley where they subtly challenge social norms and utter philosophical statements such as "I knew nothing, but I believed a lot." While the Moomins brought Jansson worldwide fame in the 20th century, she was also a painter, an accomplished novelist and a political cartoonist who took risks poking fun at Hitler. Her work often mirrored her private life in which she defied stereotypes of the time by working and earning money for her family, travelling alone, and having relationships with both men and women.Joining Rajan Datar to discuss the life and works of Tove Jansson are her niece, Sophia Jansson; Boel Westin - a professor of children's literature from Stockholm University and the author of the authorised biography of Tove's life called Life, Art, Words; and British children's author Philip Ardagh, author of The World of Moo